PEST Analysis on British Airways Essay -- Economics Business Air Essay

Irritation Analysis on British Airways The four distinct situations are regularly alluded to as PEST and permit a PESTanalysis to be led this permits the association to audit and consider the earth wherein it works. The PEST factor that has added to the aircrafts business for a long time, be that as it may, has brought an intense change was from the fiasco on September eleventh 2001. World of politics concerns the job of the legislature and its influences in an association it likewise incorporates the degree to which the government intercedes in the economy. Because of the fear based oppressor assault numerous carriers, for example, British Airways halted trips to specific nations for example, the middles east and the principle nations associated with the dread of their planes being assaulted. This is along these lines caused up a political mix with the way that Britain's dread them perhaps the following survivors of fear monger assaults. This has had a many negative impacts on the aircrafts as they have missed out on a great deal of cash as a result of the stoppage of trips to specific goals. The specialists have needed to ensure that specific principles have been put into spot to ensure that the carriers are sheltered and that they stand fair and square. English Airways have needed to depend on the political and condition consequences for the criticism that they get the opportunity to choose what course if move to make on the carrier. Also the measure of monetary action in the financial condition is critical. While assessi...

The other day, I had a convers... free essay sample

A day or two ago, I had a discussion with one of my tutors, and he asked, What arethe difficulties or protests individuals give you when you are talking about business? There a fewstaples people consistently state; I dont have sufficient opportunity. I have to get more cash-flow. The one Ifind the most fascinating is I bring in enough cash, however some way or another I wish I could make a greater amount of adifference for othersI simply wish I felt progressively satisfied in my career.The sentiment of satisfaction in your life can be difficult to accomplish in the event that you are carrying on with an actual existence you didnot need or on the off chance that you fell into a circumstance and now you dont have an exit plan. Such a large number of us thoughtwhen we escaped secondary school or school or landed our first position that you knew basically how lifewould turn out. By one way or another, your life changes. ..an occupation misfortune, a relationship starts or finishes, an injury,an sick relative, and crisis, the introduction of a kid, a disaster or maybe basically youchanged your brain about your heading and out of nowhere you end up in a differentplace. We will compose a custom exposition test on A day or two ago, I had a convers or then again any comparable theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page We can continue for a considerable length of time with a specific daily schedule while never asking ourselves thequestion..Am I glad? Shockingly, for such huge numbers of individuals out there the response to that questionis no. What do you do at that point? It is far-fetched you can change your circumstance short-term, yet you canalways change how you approach your life or considerably increasingly significant; what importance do you attachto the circumstance you are in as of now? Here are a couple of thoughts to remain concentrated on ensuring youfeel satisfied throughout everyday life. 1. Adhere to Your Values Learn to respect your convictions. In the event that something doesn't feel right toyou, you should make changes. Be available to change. This can be a troublesome thing,but there is nothing more awful than thinking back on life and acknowledging you squandered or lost toomuch of your time.2. Concentrate on the Positive Take a stage back and consider what makes you happyabout your life. Encircle yourself with individuals who are inspiring and cause you to feel good.3. Target reality put aside time to see what is an unmistakable in your life and what can bechanged. Dont do a motor update on your life if a few things are working and youmight simply need a tune up4. Imagine what you really need This is truly the ONLY method to get what you need out oflife. On the off chance that you put your vitality on anything sufficiently long and with power, you can make ityour reality. Achievement is about the capacity to move your concentration to what you should to moveforward momentarily. 5. Hear yourself out You are the person who has the appropriate responses. So as to discover whatmakes you feel satisfied, ask yourself, when I feel the most vitality and energy, whatam I doing at that time? When you make sense of that, figure out how to fuse that intoyour every day life. Once in a while, it removes getting from everything and getting the chanceto actually hear only your musings, to really perceive what you need or need inlife.6. You are Responsible Its frequently simple to censure others for what you don't have, butultimately you choose what your life will resemble. Take responsibility for circumstancesand comprehend you have the ability to transform them whenever. Joy and satisfaction are reachable, yet once in a while we don't see it. Perhaps the most ideal ways I had the option to acquire clearness, was to discover a mentorwho would ask me the extreme inquiries I was not asking myself. Throughout the years, we havementored and instructed individuals on the best way to really discover their why throughout everyday life and it has prompted exponentialsuccess.

A 3-Step Process to Break a Cycle of Frustration, Stress, and Fighting at Work

A 3-Step Process to Break a Cycle of Frustration, Stress, and Fighting at Work “If a flower doesn’t bloom, you fix the environment, not the flowerâ€" this is my favorite quote when it comes to the  working environment and employees development.You may have found yourself in a situation where almost everything you want to do at work faces the resistance in your office.Sometimes it comes from your boss, sometimes from your colleagues and sometimes even from you â€" because you believe someone will have resistance and you find your effort to be useless, so sadly you give up in the first place.Unfortunately, we have seen many companies with extraordinary employees perform poorly, due to the toxic culture that rules amongst employees.To highlight how important this is, just imagine a company that consists of brilliant individuals that can’t show what they know because they are too busy fighting over something irrelevant. It would be a waste of talents.In order to help people overcome this toxic culture and also prevent it in the future, we have covered the mos t common roots of the frustration, stress, and fighting at work, and also a simple 3-step process how to overcome these challenges.THE ROOT OF THE PROBLEMBefore discussing the solutions and looking for a way to improve the work environment, we have to find the actual cause of the problem.Here comes a variety of things that can influence as to feel stressed, and eventually even  depressed, and we need to seek for as many as possible perspectives in order to become able to actually cope with these problems.Causes can be different â€" coming from personal problems or coming actually from the environment at the work.And the tricky thing about the environment is the fact that it consists of all the people who work in the same company, and all of them also have their personal challenges.Taking everything into consideration, we have made a list of things that usually cause stress, frustration and fighting at work.1. Work OverloadThis one is a strictly professional cause and it appears when an employee becomes overwhelmed with the amount of work he or she is responsible for.Work should challenge us, but also there is a line that shouldn’t be crossed.This line is different for anyone and it represents the moment in which challenges at work become frustration at work.To put this in another way, imagine getting a new position that you were really looking forward to.This feels quite rewarding for you, but also you are aware that the higher position brings more responsibility and therefore, you need to become a better version of yourself, in order to accomplish everything.This can be quite healthy and result in you improving much faster and becoming more competent than ever.However, if the load of work you are getting becomes too much for you to handle and you are not able to get everything done due to the lack of your competence, it can become very frustrating, and eventually result in you quitting or down stepping, instead of progressing.This can be a strong driver for all the following frustration at can influence satisfaction at work not only for the individual but for all employees.2. Long HoursAlmost every company comes that period of the year when extra hours are mandatory in order for everything to be done.This is a piece of old news, but what is actually new and not well known are the consequences that can come from working too long.There have been many examples of people becoming  less productive although they are working longer.It has been proven that there is no rule when it comes to the connection between long hours and productivity.On the contrary, the latest studies show us that working for a shorter period of time boosts employees satisfaction and therefore brings more results to the company.Why is it stressful for people to work longer? People often feel as they are doing something they don’t want to do, due to the fact that they are staying longer in the office than they believe they should, feeling robbed of their free time.If employees start feeling threatened by the company, they will become stressed and frustrated, and eventually do the job just to say that it’s done, not dedicating themselves to it actually. Unfortunately, this is their way of getting back to the company if they cant find a better way to express how unsatisfied they are.Even though they are “getting back” to the company and finding their way to justice, they are doing something that’s not according to their values and beliefs, which will leave them feeling even worse.You can see how this becomes a cycle of frustration that is hard to break.3. Close DeadlinesWe have all experienced pressure due to  deadlines  at least once in our lives.You know how bad it can get when you are aware of everything you need to do, aware of the little time that is left and the consequences that will appear if you cross the deadline.Being aware doesnt help when you are running  late and start having panic attacks that not only make you feel worse bu t also prevent you from finishing anything.If you got that feeling even for a moment now, try imagining feeling that way each day at the work. Would there be a smile on your face while you are headed to work?Probably not and we completely understand you.Sometimes its the employees that are running late with their tasks and getting themselves in these kinds of situations theres no doubt.But unfortunately, in some companies, its the employers who push others and drive the pressure.Having everything mentioned above in mind, theres no doubt that being constantly in a hurry and feeling as you are underachieving at your work, causes stress which can lead do different arguments and conflicts.4. Work-related InsecurityThis usually occurs when starting a job in a new company or at some higher position.For example, a person who comes to a completely new environment without any support of others and in the worst case scenario poor training can feel overly stressed.Insecurity is a well-known t hing as we are all fighting a battle with it in our own unique ways.What is common for everyone is the fact that we are all haunted by our insecurities when we find ourselves in an unknown ground.What we need in those kinds of situations is somebody who will guide us and support us, until we realize our potential and get confident in our abilities.Unfortunately, in some companies, mentors of the newbies sometimes dont dedicate themselves enough to the people they are responsible for which results in high insecurity.Coming back each day from a work where you feel incompetent and not supported can lead to deep levels of stress and eventually result in people resigning from their positions.5. The Absence of AutonomyIf people can find purpose in what they are doing and can clearly see how everything they do contributes to a bigger cause, they will want to contribute, and they will want to contribute in their own way.Why does this happen? People enjoy being part of bigger groups take so ciety as the most obvious example, but also enjoy being recognized for something good they did.When it comes to work, people want to have control over their piece of work, as they are the ones who will have to stand behind it.The problem occurs when the wishes of the employees are not the same as the wishes of the employers.Employees often feel afraid and lack the courage to stand up to their bosses, defending their ideas.Even if they do, it can often happen that the boss finds the idea irrelevant, concluding that he or she is more competent, due to their experience.This brings employees in a really bad position where they feel as they are not important or that their opinion is not relevant.These are the most common roots of the problems that come directly from the work environment. Unfortunately, even if all of these problems were covered, there still might be challenges that cause frustration, stress, and conflicts at work.But these cases are rare, and cant impact that much the wo rk environment.Whats more, if the work environment is healthy and supportive it can help any employee to sort out the things in personal areas of life, too.HOW TO BREAK CYCLE OF FRUSTRATION, STRESS, AND FIGHTING AT WORKThere are different ways to succeed in this, but we decided to present you one process that has helped many people before you.In order to complete it successfully, here is a step by step guide that can help you feel calmer and at peace at work.1. Become Aware of YourselfYou might find this narcissistic, but trust us, it’s definitely not. You always have to start from yourself â€" no matter if it is a good or a bad thing happening.In this ever-changing world, there is only one thing you can control â€" yourself. To be more precise, you can control only what you think about.What you think about becomes what you do, and your actions result in everything that is happening to you.That’s why it is very important to become completely aware of yourself and ensure your inn er peace.What does it mean to become completely aware of  yourself? It means getting to the bottom of your strengths, weaknesses, passion, and purpose.When you become aware of  your personal WHY, you will find yourself in a situation where making decisions, collaborating with others, stating your opinion etc. becomes quite simple and something you do without worrying about it.Only when we get to know ourselves, we can start getting to know others, and most importantly understand them.If you know who you are and what strengths and weaknesses you have, you will have no challenge telling yes or no to your boss when it comes to some task.Also, when you are completely aware of your beliefs and values, there is only a small chance for you to become frustrated by your co-workers or some stakeholder.On the contrary, you are in a position to understand others and help them feel peaceful and work in harmony, too.The most important advice for you when you begin your journey of raising self-awa reness: make sure you focus on your strengths because your strengths are the ones that will help you make progress in your life.If you rely on your strengths, you will see how much you can progress, and most importantly, you will feel empowered most of the time.2. Start Working on Your Emotional Self-controlNow that you are aware of your strengths and weakness, your most important thing in life â€" your WHY, and also what actually causes you to feel in a specific way, it is the time for you to work on coping with emotions.Emotions can be an amazing thing and driver of outstanding results in the company â€" everybody has emotions, and when we feel something strongly, we are  more keen  on dedicating ourselves to that thing.But on the other hand, the more invested we feel, the higher chance of stress and frustration can appear, especially if that thing is not entirely in our hands, but depends on the others too.In those kinds of situations, our emotional intelligence, as well as self- control,  play  the most important role. Imagine a situation where a conflict occurs and you get completely frustrated.Your initial reaction would be to become angry and start an argument with your colleagues (if you are an expressive type) or become angry and keep it for yourself, holding in those toxic emotions for the rest of the day.Instead of reacting in that way, you should be thankful for those kinds of the situation because that means that you can practice your  emotional self-control.This means reconsidering the way you act, by finding the best possible solution for yourself.The goal should be to embrace the fact that for instance, a conflict occurred, both sides have some arguments, but nobody has a bad intention and there is no reason for us to feel threatened.Emotional self-control can put us in a situation where we see everything clearly, have an objective perspective and can completely understand the other side, even though we still don’t agree with some things.3. Be come Friends With People You Work WithIt might sound hard to believe in the first place, but actually, your co-workers can become your friends.Why is this good for lowering the stress in the office?You know how no matter which argument you have with your friends, you have no fear of speaking up your mind and you are not afraid that something (in this case your relationship) will be ruined.Thats because you have trust in your friends and you know that an argument is just a temporary thing. That type of relationships you should strive to build with your coworkers.It would mean that you have no fear of giving them feedback, or that when they give you the feedback you dont take it personally.You trust them that its with a good intention and for the good of the company.Lastly, you will start to enjoy work more.That means that you will leave your work with a big smile, and also come back the next day with even bigger.Also, anything that happens on work â€" for example, work overload, long hours etc. will be much easier to handle if you have support from your colleagues, better say friends.END OF ARTICLEMany people hate Mondays, but it’s actually their work that they hate.This is something you should definitely avoid, and trust us, it’s not that hard.All you have to do is actually realize what the problem is, and apply a simple 3 step guide for applying the solution.If you dont know from where to start â€" start from yourself. It is always the best start. Analyzing your thoughts and actions can lead to many discoveries, and most importantly, you will finally understand yourself, as well as things that get on your nerves.Some good piece of advice you should take with you after reading this text is to always  find the time for self-reflecting.Most of us think that we dont have the time for this, but actually, its the one thing we always need to have time for.You can combine it with  practicing mindfulness  â€" for example, disciplines such as yoga or meditation. Th ere is no better way to start the day.And in the end, remember always that we are all human beings and that we all are facing some different challenges.Don’t judge others and always try to understand their perspective.You can learn a lot from it, not to mention how improved your relationships with others would be if they saw how empathetic you were. And you are empathetic â€" just let it overwhelm you while you master your  Zen  and calmness and bring peace to your office.

22 Immutable Laws of Marketing - 1449 Words

The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing Marketing consultants, Al Ries and Jack Trout, carefully and logically outline 22 absolute laws for succeeding in the marketing arena in this book. This duo is also credited for authoring Bottom-Up Marketing, Marketing Warfare, and Positioning. The main point, repeated throughout the book, is that marketing is based around the perception of the consumer and once that consumer has formed an opinion on your product or company, it s nearly impossible to change it. Each chapter identifies an immutable law and provides plenty of examples of how different prominent companies marketing strategies either succeeded or failed based on a particular law. Failures often occurred due to poor decision making†¦show more content†¦Two companies cannot own the same word in the prospect s mind, therefore the key is getting others to use your word and become a leader. Another strategy for getting into the mind of consumers is the law of candor. When you admit a negative, the prospect wil l give you a positive. For example, Listerine became very effective when they stated that their product was the taste you hate twice a day. While marketing your product, you have to watch for the law of division. Over time, a category will divide and become two or more categories. Cars are a great example of this law, but timing is important and you can be too early to exploit a new category. Moving farther into your project, you need to realize that marketing effects take place over an extended period of time. Donald Trump filing for bankruptcy is a great example of short-term success leading to long-term failures. Successful programs are not built on fads, they re built on trends. Fads are good for the short-term, but trends are better for the long-term. The key to a long-term trend is to never totally satisfy the demand of your product or service. As your brand becomes successful, there s an irresistible pressure to extend the equity of the brand. The authors state t hat the most violated law in the book is the law of line extension. Instead of spreading yourself thin over many products, it is better to be strong somewhere insteadShow MoreRelatedTechnology And Technology : The Future Of Technology861 Words   |  4 Pagescomputers and laptops we have evolved from having those fat computer monitors to now thin screens that move faster. Apple has also cornered the market on computers otherwise known as Mac computers. Apple computers has remained first rung on the law of duality. The law of duality is that in the long run, every market becomes a two-horse race (Ries, A., Trout, J. 1994). Apple has fought its way to first place compared to Windows. 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A Liberation Psychology By Martin Baro - 934 Words

â€Å"Washing one s hands of the conflict between the powerful and the powerless means to side with the powerful, not to be neutral†(Paulo Freir). Throughout the book Writings for a Liberation Psychology by Martà ­n-Barà ³ mentions a variety of psychology warfare used primary amongst the lower class population in order to have control over them. To what extend can the book Writings for a Liberation Psychology by Martà ­n-Barà ³, be used to establish community organizing or even creating a community in order to hold unity against the variety psychological warfare being used by the oppressors. For instance Dr. Baro, comments â€Å" Simply to assume that every vote has the same meanining is to ignore the mulitiplicity of causes that may lead a person to vote, and the multiplicity of motives that can be hidden behind a vote for a givne party or candidate.† (pg. 71). Through this section of the book, baro is bringing the idea of why people in El salvador feel like they have the right to go out to vote but not control of what votes actually get counted for. For starters the people know for a fact that the voting polls are being riged, however how can they develop consciousness in order to express themselfs towards their own community in order to detain riged polls? Dr. Baro comments on how historical memory could be one of the keys to making changes around you: The hard struggle struggle to satisfy everyday basic needs forces the popular majorities to stay in a here and now without a before

Causes of Air Accidents Free Essays

Air Accident An Air accident is the worst nightmare of every pilot or passenger that has ever ridden in an aircraft. Although air travel is one of the safest forms of transportations, accidents do happen with dramatic and terrifying results. The circumstance of Air accidents takes place by four causes: takeoff and landing, mechanical failures, pilot error, and bad weather. We will write a custom essay sample on Causes of Air Accidents or any similar topic only for you Order Now One cause of Air accidents take place is during takeoff and landing. Approximately 80 percent of all aviation accidents occur shortly before, after, or during takeoff or landing, and are often described as resulting from â€Å"human error. The causes of Air accident is vary greatly depending on problems that may develop during the flight possess. In many situations these accidents can be completely avoided through careful preparation and effective safety techniques. Taxi and Takeoff is one of the most important parts of a flight. The preflight and planning stages of the operation must be carefully done to prevent accidents and save many lives. Landing Accidents during Descent account for 36 percent of all general Air mishaps and are the most common type of accident. When combined, taxi and takeoff accidents account for about 22percent jet airplane accidents, and about 22percent of all fatalities. Another cause of Air accidents is mechanical failures. No form of transportation is completely safe, and no machine is completely foolproof. Mechanical failure is responsible for 13percent of all commercial airplane accidents. An airplane can crash if engine failure can come in form of simple stalling. It could be as worse as a complete detachment of the motor itself. Many Modern planes have more than one engine and this allows the plane to continue to fly when one is shut down. However, these other cases where all shut at one, or one after the other, and accident occur. Anything that can go wrong will go wrong. Tragically, this sometimes applies to Air accidents when mechanical failures occur. A somewhat different cause for Air accidents is a pilot error. When most people make mistakes at their jobs, their employment can be terminated. In contrast, when pilots are negligent or make errors while on their jobs, there is potential for hundreds of lives to be terminated. The pilots receive extensive training designed to prepare them to handle a wide variety of situations, but there are times when fatal mistakes are made. When flight crew and pilots do their jobs correctly, Air accidents are much less likely to occur. Another important cause of Air accidents is bad weather. For example, flying at peak thunderstorm times should be avoided. In addition, flying at night is no safer than flying in the day. The weather caused 4percent of Air accidents. However, other problems made up the remaining 4percent. Most plane crashes happen in the months of September and December. However, no one from any investigation knows almost Air accidents happened in these two months. In conclusion, the circumstance of Air accidents takes place by four causes: takeoff and landing, mechanical failures, pilot errors, and bad weather. Yet many airplane accidents still have unknown causes. How to cite Causes of Air Accidents, Essay examples

Families and the Buying Decision Process †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Families and the Buying Decision Process. Answer: Families form societal institutions that shape how other family members make decisions. Beyond social roles, families have been found to serve a critical role to determine purchase decision making processes among family members and relatives (Polya Sandor, 2013). In fact, families play a significant role in terms of consumer socialization and in the end, this influences how children become consumers. In one of his studies for instance, Polya and Sandor maintain that it forms a framework under which children start learning on different ways to behave as potential consumers, obtain all relevant competencies pertaining to buying and consumption, from which they turn into competent to other consumers. Change of roles among children in families is not a recent thing, but it has been in the air for the past years. It has affected purchase decision making processes among families (Koc, 2004). Children see themselves in the same position as the rest of the family members. In most cases, they gain knowledge concerning what parents do and make a competency decision. Chander Raza (2015) claim that in fact, most children have learnt to become consumers than their counterparts a few decades ago. We can differentiate two different situations that contribute to one making decision in a family: at an individual level and at a group level. When a product is affordable, it might cause any problem and hence, can be bought easily by family members. Nonetheless, in the case that a product has a high value, then several members of the family take part in the decision making with each member taking different roles. This aspect brings out a family as an important component in the decision making process. In one of the studies conducted by Comegys, Hannula and Visnen (2006), the decision making process assumes five key stages. They include recognizing customer needs, searching for information, conducting evaluation, making final decision to purchase the product, and post purchase behaviour. In every part of these stages, families take part in shaping the decisions of their children. Hibi? and Poturak (2016) refer to need recognition as the problem seeking stage. This is when one member of the family sees the difference between the state they would like to have and the current actual state. Of course, other factors that play a role include income, family size, education, race, sex, age, and marital status. Information search by customers makes it possible to use a number of techniques and tools in order to collect critical information that shows different products and services already available in stores. A perfect case is an exploratory study conducted by Chander Raza (2015) to understand the extent to which male and female provided information in an electronic decision making process. The study targeted tourists that travelled as a group. The findings revealed that spouses preferred consulting among themselves to gain more information about the services and possible destination points. Similarly, Polya and Sandor (2013) explain that through active information search, children always engage their parents or close relatives to offer information regarding brands, prices, models, and quality, among other critical information. Koc (2004) posit that consumers also receive information through personal sources such as family and friends, experimental sources, public sources, and commercial sources. While commercial sources contribute greatly towards generation of information, Koc, acknowledges that the personal source offers the most effective information. Evaluation of alternatives help consumers in setting rules, cut-off, or attributes concerning product choices available. While these are the most minimum acceptable levels, customers end up using an alternative they perceive as trustworthy. This could be through first-hand experience in consumption of products. Family members and friends have been found to top the list in this category. According to Petkovski and Mirchevska (2013), they are more willing to share their testimonies on product use, cost, and value. Of course, families play a key role in assigning potential consumers reduce the list of alternatives. The Purchase decision comes after a customer has already evaluated available alternatives. Comegys, et al (2006) illustrate that attitude of family members, the community, or friends might put pressure on customers to change their preferences. The second factor might include prices as part of unexpected occurrences. However, what of if these factors fail to have an impact on a customer? This would result in what Comegys, et al refer to as impulse buying. Even after an individual has purchased the product, the purchase process will still go on. Two important factors that always come in the minds of marketers and retailers include post-purchase satisfaction and post-purchase actions. Again, families interact to influence one another to make repurchases or preferences. Marketers might target mothers or newlywed couples to purchase home products. As a group, couples are likely to seek information from one another because of preferences and loyalty. Therefore, it is evident that throughout the five decision making processes, families play significant roles in influencing purchase behaviours. References Chander, S., Raza, M. (2015) Consumer Buying Behaviour: A Comparative Study of Male and Female Users of Electronics, Abasyn University Journal Of Social Sciences, 8(1), 47-61. Comegys, C., Hannula, M., Visnen, J. (2006) Longitudinal comparison of Finnish and US online shopping behaviour among university students: The five-stage buying decision process, Journal Of Targeting, Measurement Analysis For Marketing, 14(4), pp. 336-356. Hibi?, S., Poturak, M. (2016) Impact of a Brand on Consumer Decision-making Process, European Journal of Economic Studies, 17(3), pp. 405-414 Koc, E. (2004) The Role of Family Members in the Family Holiday Purchase Decision-Making Process, International Journal of Hospitality Tourism Administration, 5(2), pp. 85-102 Petkovski, V., Mirchevska, T. P. (2013) The concept of anchoring and psychological pricing in the customer's decision making process, Economic Development (3), pp. 45-56. Polya, E., Sandor, R. (2013) Examining the role of family members in family buying enter in adult Hungarian population, European Scientific Journal, Vol. 19, pp. 1857-7881