PEST Analysis on British Airways Essay -- Economics Business Air Essay

Irritation Analysis on British Airways The four distinct situations are regularly alluded to as PEST and permit a PESTanalysis to be led this permits the association to audit and consider the earth wherein it works. The PEST factor that has added to the aircrafts business for a long time, be that as it may, has brought an intense change was from the fiasco on September eleventh 2001. World of politics concerns the job of the legislature and its influences in an association it likewise incorporates the degree to which the government intercedes in the economy. Because of the fear based oppressor assault numerous carriers, for example, British Airways halted trips to specific nations for example, the middles east and the principle nations associated with the dread of their planes being assaulted. This is along these lines caused up a political mix with the way that Britain's dread them perhaps the following survivors of fear monger assaults. This has had a many negative impacts on the aircrafts as they have missed out on a great deal of cash as a result of the stoppage of trips to specific goals. The specialists have needed to ensure that specific principles have been put into spot to ensure that the carriers are sheltered and that they stand fair and square. English Airways have needed to depend on the political and condition consequences for the criticism that they get the opportunity to choose what course if move to make on the carrier. Also the measure of monetary action in the financial condition is critical. While assessi...

The other day, I had a convers... free essay sample

A day or two ago, I had a discussion with one of my tutors, and he asked, What arethe difficulties or protests individuals give you when you are talking about business? There a fewstaples people consistently state; I dont have sufficient opportunity. I have to get more cash-flow. The one Ifind the most fascinating is I bring in enough cash, however some way or another I wish I could make a greater amount of adifference for othersI simply wish I felt progressively satisfied in my career.The sentiment of satisfaction in your life can be difficult to accomplish in the event that you are carrying on with an actual existence you didnot need or on the off chance that you fell into a circumstance and now you dont have an exit plan. Such a large number of us thoughtwhen we escaped secondary school or school or landed our first position that you knew basically how lifewould turn out. By one way or another, your life changes. ..an occupation misfortune, a relationship starts or finishes, an injury,an sick relative, and crisis, the introduction of a kid, a disaster or maybe basically youchanged your brain about your heading and out of nowhere you end up in a differentplace. We will compose a custom exposition test on A day or two ago, I had a convers or then again any comparable theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page We can continue for a considerable length of time with a specific daily schedule while never asking ourselves thequestion..Am I glad? Shockingly, for such huge numbers of individuals out there the response to that questionis no. What do you do at that point? It is far-fetched you can change your circumstance short-term, yet you canalways change how you approach your life or considerably increasingly significant; what importance do you attachto the circumstance you are in as of now? Here are a couple of thoughts to remain concentrated on ensuring youfeel satisfied throughout everyday life. 1. Adhere to Your Values Learn to respect your convictions. In the event that something doesn't feel right toyou, you should make changes. Be available to change. This can be a troublesome thing,but there is nothing more awful than thinking back on life and acknowledging you squandered or lost toomuch of your time.2. Concentrate on the Positive Take a stage back and consider what makes you happyabout your life. Encircle yourself with individuals who are inspiring and cause you to feel good.3. Target reality put aside time to see what is an unmistakable in your life and what can bechanged. Dont do a motor update on your life if a few things are working and youmight simply need a tune up4. Imagine what you really need This is truly the ONLY method to get what you need out oflife. On the off chance that you put your vitality on anything sufficiently long and with power, you can make ityour reality. Achievement is about the capacity to move your concentration to what you should to moveforward momentarily. 5. Hear yourself out You are the person who has the appropriate responses. So as to discover whatmakes you feel satisfied, ask yourself, when I feel the most vitality and energy, whatam I doing at that time? When you make sense of that, figure out how to fuse that intoyour every day life. Once in a while, it removes getting from everything and getting the chanceto actually hear only your musings, to really perceive what you need or need inlife.6. You are Responsible Its frequently simple to censure others for what you don't have, butultimately you choose what your life will resemble. Take responsibility for circumstancesand comprehend you have the ability to transform them whenever. Joy and satisfaction are reachable, yet once in a while we don't see it. Perhaps the most ideal ways I had the option to acquire clearness, was to discover a mentorwho would ask me the extreme inquiries I was not asking myself. Throughout the years, we havementored and instructed individuals on the best way to really discover their why throughout everyday life and it has prompted exponentialsuccess.

A 3-Step Process to Break a Cycle of Frustration, Stress, and Fighting at Work

A 3-Step Process to Break a Cycle of Frustration, Stress, and Fighting at Work “If a flower doesn’t bloom, you fix the environment, not the flowerâ€" this is my favorite quote when it comes to the  working environment and employees development.You may have found yourself in a situation where almost everything you want to do at work faces the resistance in your office.Sometimes it comes from your boss, sometimes from your colleagues and sometimes even from you â€" because you believe someone will have resistance and you find your effort to be useless, so sadly you give up in the first place.Unfortunately, we have seen many companies with extraordinary employees perform poorly, due to the toxic culture that rules amongst employees.To highlight how important this is, just imagine a company that consists of brilliant individuals that can’t show what they know because they are too busy fighting over something irrelevant. It would be a waste of talents.In order to help people overcome this toxic culture and also prevent it in the future, we have covered the mos t common roots of the frustration, stress, and fighting at work, and also a simple 3-step process how to overcome these challenges.THE ROOT OF THE PROBLEMBefore discussing the solutions and looking for a way to improve the work environment, we have to find the actual cause of the problem.Here comes a variety of things that can influence as to feel stressed, and eventually even  depressed, and we need to seek for as many as possible perspectives in order to become able to actually cope with these problems.Causes can be different â€" coming from personal problems or coming actually from the environment at the work.And the tricky thing about the environment is the fact that it consists of all the people who work in the same company, and all of them also have their personal challenges.Taking everything into consideration, we have made a list of things that usually cause stress, frustration and fighting at work.1. Work OverloadThis one is a strictly professional cause and it appears when an employee becomes overwhelmed with the amount of work he or she is responsible for.Work should challenge us, but also there is a line that shouldn’t be crossed.This line is different for anyone and it represents the moment in which challenges at work become frustration at work.To put this in another way, imagine getting a new position that you were really looking forward to.This feels quite rewarding for you, but also you are aware that the higher position brings more responsibility and therefore, you need to become a better version of yourself, in order to accomplish everything.This can be quite healthy and result in you improving much faster and becoming more competent than ever.However, if the load of work you are getting becomes too much for you to handle and you are not able to get everything done due to the lack of your competence, it can become very frustrating, and eventually result in you quitting or down stepping, instead of progressing.This can be a strong driver for all the following frustration at can influence satisfaction at work not only for the individual but for all employees.2. Long HoursAlmost every company comes that period of the year when extra hours are mandatory in order for everything to be done.This is a piece of old news, but what is actually new and not well known are the consequences that can come from working too long.There have been many examples of people becoming  less productive although they are working longer.It has been proven that there is no rule when it comes to the connection between long hours and productivity.On the contrary, the latest studies show us that working for a shorter period of time boosts employees satisfaction and therefore brings more results to the company.Why is it stressful for people to work longer? People often feel as they are doing something they don’t want to do, due to the fact that they are staying longer in the office than they believe they should, feeling robbed of their free time.If employees start feeling threatened by the company, they will become stressed and frustrated, and eventually do the job just to say that it’s done, not dedicating themselves to it actually. Unfortunately, this is their way of getting back to the company if they cant find a better way to express how unsatisfied they are.Even though they are “getting back” to the company and finding their way to justice, they are doing something that’s not according to their values and beliefs, which will leave them feeling even worse.You can see how this becomes a cycle of frustration that is hard to break.3. Close DeadlinesWe have all experienced pressure due to  deadlines  at least once in our lives.You know how bad it can get when you are aware of everything you need to do, aware of the little time that is left and the consequences that will appear if you cross the deadline.Being aware doesnt help when you are running  late and start having panic attacks that not only make you feel worse bu t also prevent you from finishing anything.If you got that feeling even for a moment now, try imagining feeling that way each day at the work. Would there be a smile on your face while you are headed to work?Probably not and we completely understand you.Sometimes its the employees that are running late with their tasks and getting themselves in these kinds of situations theres no doubt.But unfortunately, in some companies, its the employers who push others and drive the pressure.Having everything mentioned above in mind, theres no doubt that being constantly in a hurry and feeling as you are underachieving at your work, causes stress which can lead do different arguments and conflicts.4. Work-related InsecurityThis usually occurs when starting a job in a new company or at some higher position.For example, a person who comes to a completely new environment without any support of others and in the worst case scenario poor training can feel overly stressed.Insecurity is a well-known t hing as we are all fighting a battle with it in our own unique ways.What is common for everyone is the fact that we are all haunted by our insecurities when we find ourselves in an unknown ground.What we need in those kinds of situations is somebody who will guide us and support us, until we realize our potential and get confident in our abilities.Unfortunately, in some companies, mentors of the newbies sometimes dont dedicate themselves enough to the people they are responsible for which results in high insecurity.Coming back each day from a work where you feel incompetent and not supported can lead to deep levels of stress and eventually result in people resigning from their positions.5. The Absence of AutonomyIf people can find purpose in what they are doing and can clearly see how everything they do contributes to a bigger cause, they will want to contribute, and they will want to contribute in their own way.Why does this happen? People enjoy being part of bigger groups take so ciety as the most obvious example, but also enjoy being recognized for something good they did.When it comes to work, people want to have control over their piece of work, as they are the ones who will have to stand behind it.The problem occurs when the wishes of the employees are not the same as the wishes of the employers.Employees often feel afraid and lack the courage to stand up to their bosses, defending their ideas.Even if they do, it can often happen that the boss finds the idea irrelevant, concluding that he or she is more competent, due to their experience.This brings employees in a really bad position where they feel as they are not important or that their opinion is not relevant.These are the most common roots of the problems that come directly from the work environment. Unfortunately, even if all of these problems were covered, there still might be challenges that cause frustration, stress, and conflicts at work.But these cases are rare, and cant impact that much the wo rk environment.Whats more, if the work environment is healthy and supportive it can help any employee to sort out the things in personal areas of life, too.HOW TO BREAK CYCLE OF FRUSTRATION, STRESS, AND FIGHTING AT WORKThere are different ways to succeed in this, but we decided to present you one process that has helped many people before you.In order to complete it successfully, here is a step by step guide that can help you feel calmer and at peace at work.1. Become Aware of YourselfYou might find this narcissistic, but trust us, it’s definitely not. You always have to start from yourself â€" no matter if it is a good or a bad thing happening.In this ever-changing world, there is only one thing you can control â€" yourself. To be more precise, you can control only what you think about.What you think about becomes what you do, and your actions result in everything that is happening to you.That’s why it is very important to become completely aware of yourself and ensure your inn er peace.What does it mean to become completely aware of  yourself? It means getting to the bottom of your strengths, weaknesses, passion, and purpose.When you become aware of  your personal WHY, you will find yourself in a situation where making decisions, collaborating with others, stating your opinion etc. becomes quite simple and something you do without worrying about it.Only when we get to know ourselves, we can start getting to know others, and most importantly understand them.If you know who you are and what strengths and weaknesses you have, you will have no challenge telling yes or no to your boss when it comes to some task.Also, when you are completely aware of your beliefs and values, there is only a small chance for you to become frustrated by your co-workers or some stakeholder.On the contrary, you are in a position to understand others and help them feel peaceful and work in harmony, too.The most important advice for you when you begin your journey of raising self-awa reness: make sure you focus on your strengths because your strengths are the ones that will help you make progress in your life.If you rely on your strengths, you will see how much you can progress, and most importantly, you will feel empowered most of the time.2. Start Working on Your Emotional Self-controlNow that you are aware of your strengths and weakness, your most important thing in life â€" your WHY, and also what actually causes you to feel in a specific way, it is the time for you to work on coping with emotions.Emotions can be an amazing thing and driver of outstanding results in the company â€" everybody has emotions, and when we feel something strongly, we are  more keen  on dedicating ourselves to that thing.But on the other hand, the more invested we feel, the higher chance of stress and frustration can appear, especially if that thing is not entirely in our hands, but depends on the others too.In those kinds of situations, our emotional intelligence, as well as self- control,  play  the most important role. Imagine a situation where a conflict occurs and you get completely frustrated.Your initial reaction would be to become angry and start an argument with your colleagues (if you are an expressive type) or become angry and keep it for yourself, holding in those toxic emotions for the rest of the day.Instead of reacting in that way, you should be thankful for those kinds of the situation because that means that you can practice your  emotional self-control.This means reconsidering the way you act, by finding the best possible solution for yourself.The goal should be to embrace the fact that for instance, a conflict occurred, both sides have some arguments, but nobody has a bad intention and there is no reason for us to feel threatened.Emotional self-control can put us in a situation where we see everything clearly, have an objective perspective and can completely understand the other side, even though we still don’t agree with some things.3. Be come Friends With People You Work WithIt might sound hard to believe in the first place, but actually, your co-workers can become your friends.Why is this good for lowering the stress in the office?You know how no matter which argument you have with your friends, you have no fear of speaking up your mind and you are not afraid that something (in this case your relationship) will be ruined.Thats because you have trust in your friends and you know that an argument is just a temporary thing. That type of relationships you should strive to build with your coworkers.It would mean that you have no fear of giving them feedback, or that when they give you the feedback you dont take it personally.You trust them that its with a good intention and for the good of the company.Lastly, you will start to enjoy work more.That means that you will leave your work with a big smile, and also come back the next day with even bigger.Also, anything that happens on work â€" for example, work overload, long hours etc. will be much easier to handle if you have support from your colleagues, better say friends.END OF ARTICLEMany people hate Mondays, but it’s actually their work that they hate.This is something you should definitely avoid, and trust us, it’s not that hard.All you have to do is actually realize what the problem is, and apply a simple 3 step guide for applying the solution.If you dont know from where to start â€" start from yourself. It is always the best start. Analyzing your thoughts and actions can lead to many discoveries, and most importantly, you will finally understand yourself, as well as things that get on your nerves.Some good piece of advice you should take with you after reading this text is to always  find the time for self-reflecting.Most of us think that we dont have the time for this, but actually, its the one thing we always need to have time for.You can combine it with  practicing mindfulness  â€" for example, disciplines such as yoga or meditation. Th ere is no better way to start the day.And in the end, remember always that we are all human beings and that we all are facing some different challenges.Don’t judge others and always try to understand their perspective.You can learn a lot from it, not to mention how improved your relationships with others would be if they saw how empathetic you were. And you are empathetic â€" just let it overwhelm you while you master your  Zen  and calmness and bring peace to your office.

22 Immutable Laws of Marketing - 1449 Words

The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing Marketing consultants, Al Ries and Jack Trout, carefully and logically outline 22 absolute laws for succeeding in the marketing arena in this book. This duo is also credited for authoring Bottom-Up Marketing, Marketing Warfare, and Positioning. The main point, repeated throughout the book, is that marketing is based around the perception of the consumer and once that consumer has formed an opinion on your product or company, it s nearly impossible to change it. Each chapter identifies an immutable law and provides plenty of examples of how different prominent companies marketing strategies either succeeded or failed based on a particular law. Failures often occurred due to poor decision making†¦show more content†¦Two companies cannot own the same word in the prospect s mind, therefore the key is getting others to use your word and become a leader. Another strategy for getting into the mind of consumers is the law of candor. When you admit a negative, the prospect wil l give you a positive. For example, Listerine became very effective when they stated that their product was the taste you hate twice a day. While marketing your product, you have to watch for the law of division. Over time, a category will divide and become two or more categories. Cars are a great example of this law, but timing is important and you can be too early to exploit a new category. Moving farther into your project, you need to realize that marketing effects take place over an extended period of time. Donald Trump filing for bankruptcy is a great example of short-term success leading to long-term failures. Successful programs are not built on fads, they re built on trends. Fads are good for the short-term, but trends are better for the long-term. The key to a long-term trend is to never totally satisfy the demand of your product or service. As your brand becomes successful, there s an irresistible pressure to extend the equity of the brand. The authors state t hat the most violated law in the book is the law of line extension. Instead of spreading yourself thin over many products, it is better to be strong somewhere insteadShow MoreRelatedTechnology And Technology : The Future Of Technology861 Words   |  4 Pagescomputers and laptops we have evolved from having those fat computer monitors to now thin screens that move faster. Apple has also cornered the market on computers otherwise known as Mac computers. Apple computers has remained first rung on the law of duality. The law of duality is that in the long run, every market becomes a two-horse race (Ries, A., Trout, J. 1994). Apple has fought its way to first place compared to Windows. 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A Liberation Psychology By Martin Baro - 934 Words

â€Å"Washing one s hands of the conflict between the powerful and the powerless means to side with the powerful, not to be neutral†(Paulo Freir). Throughout the book Writings for a Liberation Psychology by Martà ­n-Barà ³ mentions a variety of psychology warfare used primary amongst the lower class population in order to have control over them. To what extend can the book Writings for a Liberation Psychology by Martà ­n-Barà ³, be used to establish community organizing or even creating a community in order to hold unity against the variety psychological warfare being used by the oppressors. For instance Dr. Baro, comments â€Å" Simply to assume that every vote has the same meanining is to ignore the mulitiplicity of causes that may lead a person to vote, and the multiplicity of motives that can be hidden behind a vote for a givne party or candidate.† (pg. 71). Through this section of the book, baro is bringing the idea of why people in El salvador feel like they have the right to go out to vote but not control of what votes actually get counted for. For starters the people know for a fact that the voting polls are being riged, however how can they develop consciousness in order to express themselfs towards their own community in order to detain riged polls? Dr. Baro comments on how historical memory could be one of the keys to making changes around you: The hard struggle struggle to satisfy everyday basic needs forces the popular majorities to stay in a here and now without a before

Causes of Air Accidents Free Essays

Air Accident An Air accident is the worst nightmare of every pilot or passenger that has ever ridden in an aircraft. Although air travel is one of the safest forms of transportations, accidents do happen with dramatic and terrifying results. The circumstance of Air accidents takes place by four causes: takeoff and landing, mechanical failures, pilot error, and bad weather. We will write a custom essay sample on Causes of Air Accidents or any similar topic only for you Order Now One cause of Air accidents take place is during takeoff and landing. Approximately 80 percent of all aviation accidents occur shortly before, after, or during takeoff or landing, and are often described as resulting from â€Å"human error. The causes of Air accident is vary greatly depending on problems that may develop during the flight possess. In many situations these accidents can be completely avoided through careful preparation and effective safety techniques. Taxi and Takeoff is one of the most important parts of a flight. The preflight and planning stages of the operation must be carefully done to prevent accidents and save many lives. Landing Accidents during Descent account for 36 percent of all general Air mishaps and are the most common type of accident. When combined, taxi and takeoff accidents account for about 22percent jet airplane accidents, and about 22percent of all fatalities. Another cause of Air accidents is mechanical failures. No form of transportation is completely safe, and no machine is completely foolproof. Mechanical failure is responsible for 13percent of all commercial airplane accidents. An airplane can crash if engine failure can come in form of simple stalling. It could be as worse as a complete detachment of the motor itself. Many Modern planes have more than one engine and this allows the plane to continue to fly when one is shut down. However, these other cases where all shut at one, or one after the other, and accident occur. Anything that can go wrong will go wrong. Tragically, this sometimes applies to Air accidents when mechanical failures occur. A somewhat different cause for Air accidents is a pilot error. When most people make mistakes at their jobs, their employment can be terminated. In contrast, when pilots are negligent or make errors while on their jobs, there is potential for hundreds of lives to be terminated. The pilots receive extensive training designed to prepare them to handle a wide variety of situations, but there are times when fatal mistakes are made. When flight crew and pilots do their jobs correctly, Air accidents are much less likely to occur. Another important cause of Air accidents is bad weather. For example, flying at peak thunderstorm times should be avoided. In addition, flying at night is no safer than flying in the day. The weather caused 4percent of Air accidents. However, other problems made up the remaining 4percent. Most plane crashes happen in the months of September and December. However, no one from any investigation knows almost Air accidents happened in these two months. In conclusion, the circumstance of Air accidents takes place by four causes: takeoff and landing, mechanical failures, pilot errors, and bad weather. Yet many airplane accidents still have unknown causes. How to cite Causes of Air Accidents, Essay examples

Families and the Buying Decision Process †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Families and the Buying Decision Process. Answer: Families form societal institutions that shape how other family members make decisions. Beyond social roles, families have been found to serve a critical role to determine purchase decision making processes among family members and relatives (Polya Sandor, 2013). In fact, families play a significant role in terms of consumer socialization and in the end, this influences how children become consumers. In one of his studies for instance, Polya and Sandor maintain that it forms a framework under which children start learning on different ways to behave as potential consumers, obtain all relevant competencies pertaining to buying and consumption, from which they turn into competent to other consumers. Change of roles among children in families is not a recent thing, but it has been in the air for the past years. It has affected purchase decision making processes among families (Koc, 2004). Children see themselves in the same position as the rest of the family members. In most cases, they gain knowledge concerning what parents do and make a competency decision. Chander Raza (2015) claim that in fact, most children have learnt to become consumers than their counterparts a few decades ago. We can differentiate two different situations that contribute to one making decision in a family: at an individual level and at a group level. When a product is affordable, it might cause any problem and hence, can be bought easily by family members. Nonetheless, in the case that a product has a high value, then several members of the family take part in the decision making with each member taking different roles. This aspect brings out a family as an important component in the decision making process. In one of the studies conducted by Comegys, Hannula and Visnen (2006), the decision making process assumes five key stages. They include recognizing customer needs, searching for information, conducting evaluation, making final decision to purchase the product, and post purchase behaviour. In every part of these stages, families take part in shaping the decisions of their children. Hibi? and Poturak (2016) refer to need recognition as the problem seeking stage. This is when one member of the family sees the difference between the state they would like to have and the current actual state. Of course, other factors that play a role include income, family size, education, race, sex, age, and marital status. Information search by customers makes it possible to use a number of techniques and tools in order to collect critical information that shows different products and services already available in stores. A perfect case is an exploratory study conducted by Chander Raza (2015) to understand the extent to which male and female provided information in an electronic decision making process. The study targeted tourists that travelled as a group. The findings revealed that spouses preferred consulting among themselves to gain more information about the services and possible destination points. Similarly, Polya and Sandor (2013) explain that through active information search, children always engage their parents or close relatives to offer information regarding brands, prices, models, and quality, among other critical information. Koc (2004) posit that consumers also receive information through personal sources such as family and friends, experimental sources, public sources, and commercial sources. While commercial sources contribute greatly towards generation of information, Koc, acknowledges that the personal source offers the most effective information. Evaluation of alternatives help consumers in setting rules, cut-off, or attributes concerning product choices available. While these are the most minimum acceptable levels, customers end up using an alternative they perceive as trustworthy. This could be through first-hand experience in consumption of products. Family members and friends have been found to top the list in this category. According to Petkovski and Mirchevska (2013), they are more willing to share their testimonies on product use, cost, and value. Of course, families play a key role in assigning potential consumers reduce the list of alternatives. The Purchase decision comes after a customer has already evaluated available alternatives. Comegys, et al (2006) illustrate that attitude of family members, the community, or friends might put pressure on customers to change their preferences. The second factor might include prices as part of unexpected occurrences. However, what of if these factors fail to have an impact on a customer? This would result in what Comegys, et al refer to as impulse buying. Even after an individual has purchased the product, the purchase process will still go on. Two important factors that always come in the minds of marketers and retailers include post-purchase satisfaction and post-purchase actions. Again, families interact to influence one another to make repurchases or preferences. Marketers might target mothers or newlywed couples to purchase home products. As a group, couples are likely to seek information from one another because of preferences and loyalty. Therefore, it is evident that throughout the five decision making processes, families play significant roles in influencing purchase behaviours. References Chander, S., Raza, M. (2015) Consumer Buying Behaviour: A Comparative Study of Male and Female Users of Electronics, Abasyn University Journal Of Social Sciences, 8(1), 47-61. Comegys, C., Hannula, M., Visnen, J. (2006) Longitudinal comparison of Finnish and US online shopping behaviour among university students: The five-stage buying decision process, Journal Of Targeting, Measurement Analysis For Marketing, 14(4), pp. 336-356. Hibi?, S., Poturak, M. (2016) Impact of a Brand on Consumer Decision-making Process, European Journal of Economic Studies, 17(3), pp. 405-414 Koc, E. (2004) The Role of Family Members in the Family Holiday Purchase Decision-Making Process, International Journal of Hospitality Tourism Administration, 5(2), pp. 85-102 Petkovski, V., Mirchevska, T. P. (2013) The concept of anchoring and psychological pricing in the customer's decision making process, Economic Development (3), pp. 45-56. Polya, E., Sandor, R. (2013) Examining the role of family members in family buying enter in adult Hungarian population, European Scientific Journal, Vol. 19, pp. 1857-7881

Law and Informal Institutions free essay sample

International Business Chapter 2 Review Questions 1. Name the one pillar that supports formal institutions and the two additional pillars that support informal institutions. Answer: Regulatory Pillar that supports formal institutions and other two additional pillars name are Normative Pillar and Cognitive Pillar. Normative pillar refers to how to values, beliefs, and actions- collectively known as norms of other relevant players influence the behavior of focal individuals and firms. Cognitive pillar is the school support for informal institutions. It refers to the internalized values and beliefs that guide individual and firm behavior. 2. How does political risk affect global business? Answer: Managers and firms rationally pursue their interests and make choices within the formal and informal constraints in a given institutional frame work. While formal and informal institutions combine to govern firm behavior, in situations where formal constrains are unclear or fail, informal constrains will play a larger role in reducing uncertainty and providing constancy to managers and firms. We will write a custom essay sample on Law and Informal Institutions or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 3. Describe the differences among the three types of legal systems. Answer: Three types of legal systems are Civil law, Common Law, and Theocratic Law. Civil Law is a tradition that uses comprehensive statutes and codes as a primary means to form legal judgments. Common law is A legal tradition that is shaped by precedents from previous judicial decisions. Theocratic law is a legal system based on religious teachings. 4. Name and describe the three economic systems. Which economic system is the most common and why? Answer: Three economic systems are Market economy, command economy and Mixed  economy. Market economy is an economy that is characterized by the â€Å"invisible hand† of market forces. Command Economy is an economy in which theoretically all factors of production are state owned and state controlled, and all supply, demand, and pricing are planned by the government. Mixed economy is an economy that has elements of both a market economy and a command economy. 5. In what ways do institutions influence individuals’ and firms’ behaviors? Explain your answer. Answer: Institutions influence the decision-making process of both individuals and firms by signaling what conduct is legitimate and acceptable and what is not. Basically, institutions constrain the range of acceptable actions. 6. What fundamental aspect of democracy is relevant to the effective conduct of global business? Answer: Democracy is a political system in which citizens elect representatives to govern the country on their behalf. Usually the political party with the majority of votes wins and forms a government. Fundamental aspect of democracy that is relevant to global business is an individual’s right to freedom of expression and organization. 7. Name and describe the four types of totalitarianism. Answer: Communist Totalitarianism centers on a communist party. This system was embraced throughout central and eastern Europe and the former soviet union until the late 1980’s. It is still practiced in China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam. 8. Give an example of how theocratic law affects daily business operations. Answer: Theocratic law is based on religious techniques. In Saudi Arabia, McDonald’s operates â€Å"ladies only† restaurants in order to comply with the  Koran’s ban on direct, face to face contact between unrelated men and women in public. 9. Name three types of intellectual property, and explain how they could be used in business. Answer: Patents are legal rights awarded by government authorities to inventors of new products or processes. The inventors are given exclusive (monopoly) rights to derive income from such inventions through activities such as manufacturing, licensing, or selling. Copyrights are the exclusive legal rights of authors and publish and disseminate their work, for example the book you are reading now is protected by copyright. Trademarks are the exclusive legal rights of firms to use specific names, brands, and designs to differentiate their products from others. 10. Our current system of intellectual property protection stems from what early patent law? Answer: Couldn’t find it in the book but guessing, most probably it is a civil law?

Free Essays on True Evil

The True Evil Everyone is able to commit evil within every human being on earth. It is how we overcome these urges to use this evil that defines who we are. In Mary Shelley’s gothic novel, â€Å"Frankenstein†, evil is portrayed in many ways through Victor Frankenstein’s actions. The main conflict in the novel is based on the â€Å"monster† Victor Frankenstein created in his laboratory. He neglects his responsibility to the monster he created by ignoring its existence, and his cowardice leads to feelings of guilt and unhappiness that cause his life to unravel and the people he loves to perish. His refusal to be accountable for his action brings the misery and misfortune that constitute the foundation of the novel. As the monster explains how he was tellinsg how he has a difficult time adjusting to his new surroundings and how he was hated by all people he first came in contact with, â€Å"he struggled violently. â€Å"Let me go,† he cried:†monster! Ugly wretch! You wish to eat me and tear me into pieces†(Shelly 136). This proves that every person he encounters thinks that he is going to harm them. The monster also was telling how he learned all about the human experience from simply observing people, how to speak, to read, to write, to be happy, to love. He was talking about these people that he loved in the hope that they could accept him, and how when he introduced himself, he was met with fear and hate, and how he ran away from the people, and how they moved away and left him all alone again. He became bitter to mankind and lost all the love he used to preserve. Frankenstein t went to Geneva, and found William, and killed him, and then framed Justine for the murder. He made a deal with Victor, if the monster would leave the civilized world forever if Victor would only agree to create a female companion for him. Victor had sympathy for the monster, but felt extreme hatred when he was telling the two murders the monster com... Free Essays on True Evil Free Essays on True Evil The True Evil Everyone is able to commit evil within every human being on earth. It is how we overcome these urges to use this evil that defines who we are. In Mary Shelley’s gothic novel, â€Å"Frankenstein†, evil is portrayed in many ways through Victor Frankenstein’s actions. The main conflict in the novel is based on the â€Å"monster† Victor Frankenstein created in his laboratory. He neglects his responsibility to the monster he created by ignoring its existence, and his cowardice leads to feelings of guilt and unhappiness that cause his life to unravel and the people he loves to perish. His refusal to be accountable for his action brings the misery and misfortune that constitute the foundation of the novel. As the monster explains how he was tellinsg how he has a difficult time adjusting to his new surroundings and how he was hated by all people he first came in contact with, â€Å"he struggled violently. â€Å"Let me go,† he cried:†monster! Ugly wretch! You wish to eat me and tear me into pieces†(Shelly 136). This proves that every person he encounters thinks that he is going to harm them. The monster also was telling how he learned all about the human experience from simply observing people, how to speak, to read, to write, to be happy, to love. He was talking about these people that he loved in the hope that they could accept him, and how when he introduced himself, he was met with fear and hate, and how he ran away from the people, and how they moved away and left him all alone again. He became bitter to mankind and lost all the love he used to preserve. Frankenstein t went to Geneva, and found William, and killed him, and then framed Justine for the murder. He made a deal with Victor, if the monster would leave the civilized world forever if Victor would only agree to create a female companion for him. Victor had sympathy for the monster, but felt extreme hatred when he was telling the two murders the monster com...

Construction organisations have adapted themselves to address change Essay

Construction organisations have adapted themselves to address change and the growing complexity of the construction industry.Pre - Essay Example One of the key characteristics of the construction industry is its high complexity; the projects developed across this industry are depended on a series of factors, including technology, climate conditions, suppliers’ and employees’ efficiency and responsibility, local regulation and so on. Therefore, for the firms that operate in the particular industry the full achievement of their goals is a challenging task; in fact, the research on the industry’s characteristics and performance has led to the conclusion that operational and strategic failures are common phenomena in this industry. This issue is discussed in this paper; it is concluded that the above failures can justify the argument that in modern market no single ideal organization can exist. The aspects and the explanation of this argument are presented in this paper referring, as an example, to the challenges and the performance of firms operating in the construction industry. 2. Change and increase of co mplexity in the construction industry - characteristics, responses and consequences - discussion of the premise that there is no single ideal organization. ... The value of the construction industry for economies worldwide cannot be ignored. For example, in USA, one of the most competitive construction markets globally, the value of the construction industry for the domestic product has estimated to 9% - referring to 2005 (Atallah 2006). Despite its size, the construction industry in USA is not well structured – a high fragmentation has been identified; more specifically, most of the industry’s firms are small and operate within their local area – about 2.1 millions of the relevant businesses are self-employed (Atallah 2006). This fact limits the potentials of these firms to face the challenges set by the globalization. The above phenomenon is common in countries worldwide. Firms in the construction industry are usually established and operate in the context of the development of particular construction projects; in many cases, the end of a construction project can set the survival of a construction firm in risk. In oth er words, there is no expansion of the activities or tasks allocated to the employees. Rather, the operation of each construction firm is depended on the successful development of a particular construction project; it is for this reason, that most of firms in this industry are self-employed – the number of employees is low. This trend is reflected in the figures released in the study of Bennett (2003); in accordance with the above study, the construction firms in Italy have been estimated to 482,000 (for 2002), a number extremely high taking into consideration the potential number of construction projects developed across the country/ compared to the country’s size and relevant needs (Bennett 2003). Moreover, in accordance with a

Research Data Analysis (using SPSS) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Research Data Analysis (using SPSS) - Essay Example There are many factors that have significant effect on generating managers and successful businesses and organizations. Such factors are related to benchmarks that a company can use to determine if the company has been doing well during the past year or years. The most important of them all is the net income or we can call it by the name turnover. The main purpose for people to put up a business, whether the organization is a partnership, a corporation or even single proprietorship, is to generate net income in order for the business to continue survive for many years. Another benchmark that must be considered is the effect of daily expenses on the net income. When the expenses increase, this will result to a decrease in net income. But when the expenses decrease, the result will be an increase in net income. The chief executive manager in the XXXX Company has indicated that they have problems in staffing. The company is in real need of experienced staff. Staffing is the process of hiring skilled workers and maintaining present skilled workers. Even if the skilled worker is asking and is being paid higher than a newly hired or inexperienced work applicant, the skilled worker will be worth the higher pay because the skilled worker can work faster and create better quality products than newly hired employees. Most customers prefer to buy a high quality product at a higher price because the customers believe that such items will last longer and satisfy the delicate high quality services. One way of lessening expenses is to hire part time staff during peak seasons. It is the time when many customers arrive. In this case, it usually happens during Christmas vacation and other important events. A third benchmark that ought to be taken into account is the increase or decrease in net sales that the company has generated during the past year or years that it has been in business. When the net sales will increase, the net income will also increase. But when the net sales will decrease, the sad result is that the net income will automatically be lesser.To improve the operational and financial aspect of the business some measures that were taken was the training and retraining of employees. This has contributed much to the improved performance of the employees, according to the chief executive manager interviewed. Competitive salaries comparable with the competitors are given to well performing employees to retain their loyalty. Furthermore, annual salary increases based on performance will encourage employees to outperform the benchmarks or quotas agreed upon during general meetings between management and employees affected. Another action that was taken to improve its operating and financial performance was the up to date study of the products, marketing plans and current market share of company's competitors. The study will help much to increase the net income of the company. Another step taken by this executive is to keep a database of present customers. Constant communication with the clients regarding company offers that would satisfy the clients' needs was a priority strategy of the executive here. This has been made

Human rights and indian armed forces in low intensity

Human rights and indian armed forces in low intensity CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION â€Å"A bullet fired by the security forces becomes a massacre by the security forces every act of a terrorist or insurgent is attributed as a colossal failure of security† The quote above describes the situation under which thousands of armed forces personnel, deployed to fight the anti national and anti social elements in low intensity conflict operations in the North Eastern region for over five decades and for two decades in Jammu Kashmir. One of the greatest threats to the future of Indian democracy is terrorism which has almost become a way of life in the North Eastern states. Pakistan has been waging a proxy war in Jammu Kashmir since 1989. She has been infiltrating armed militants and promoting insurgency on a very large scale. Failure of the civil administration to control the situation has led to the deployment of the armed forces in low intensity conflict operations. Though, the security forces have been able to bring the situation under control, at the same time has also brought up the issues of violation of human rights from time to time. The situation at present is that, while there is an increasing and widespread demand for human rights observance of by the security forces operating in low intensity conflict operations environment under Armed Forces Special Powers Act, gross violations of the same by the insurgent, militant and separatist organisations continue unabated. In the recent past the demand for repealing of The Armed Forces Special Powers Act has considerably increased. This act is blamed to be a draconian law which violates the basic rights of human beings guaranteed to them by the various provisions of the constitution and international laws and conventions. Armed Forces Special Powers Act was enacted by the Parliament for the first time in 1958, to deal with certain serious threats to the integrity of the nation from some separatist organisations in some of the North Eastern states.  Ã‚   Under similar conditions this act was promulgated in Punjab in 1980s and in the state of Jammu Kashmir in 1990. Some people and organisations believe that Armed Forces Special Powers Act is the single most factor for the human rights violations.   Certain international organisations have also voiced their opinion in favour of the repeal of this act.   However, it needs an in depth study to ascertain whether Armed Forces Special Powers Act is only causing human rights violations and its repeal will help in reducing the same. METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem Armed Forces Special Powers Act is perceived to be one of the major reasons for human rights violations in low intensity conflict environment. Repeal of Armed Forces Special Powers Act will help in reduction of human rights violations in these areas. Justification for the Study Internal security environment has been deteriorated in various parts of the country since long due to ongoing low intensity conflict operations in their various forms.   Insurgency, militancy and terrorism are the result of some of the peculiar socio political situations, some of which are also engineered and abetted by our adversaries.   These problems have led to increased involvement of the armed forces to assist the civil administration in maintaining the law and order situation in various parts of the country.   Emergence of media especially electronic media and some human rights organisations have resulted into increased awareness of the human rights in the societies. Human rights reports from time to time have indicated that a number of human rights abuses have taken place despite extensive constitutional and statutory safeguards. Violation of human rights by security forces has also been reported by many organisations. Since a very large number of armed forces are deployed in low intensity conflict operations in various parts of the country, the study of the subject is of great relevance. In such a scenario, it is imperative that all members of the armed forces be aware of the various aspects of human rights so that they are respected at all times and also to avoid allegations of violation of human rights while operating in low intensity conflict operations. Scope The scope of this paper is to study the concept and provision of human rights in International Declarations and Indian Constitution, legal aspects of employment of armed forces in low intensity conflict operations, Armed Forces Special Powers Act, Armed Forces Special Powers Act and human rights violations, recommendations on repeal/review of Armed Forces Special Powers Act and recommended measures to prevent human rights violations in low intensity conflict operations environment. Methods of Data Collection The library of the Defence Services Staff College, precies and handouts issued by the Defence Services Staff College, interaction with some prominent personalities, conduct of opinion poll at Defence Services Staff College and articles from the Internet has been the source of information and data used in this paper.  Ã‚   A bibliography of sources has been appended at the end of the dissertation as Appendix A. Preview It is proposed to study the subject by analysing and evaluating the following aspects:- Origin and concept of human rights. Universal Declaration on Human Rights and provision of human rights in Indian Constitution. Legal aspects of low intensity conflict operations and Armed Forces Special Powers Act. Armed Forces Special Powers Act and human rights violations. Recommendations on repealing of Armed Forces Special Powers Act. Remedial measures to prevent human rights violations. Conclusion. CHAPTER II ORIGIN AND CONCEPT OF HUMAN RIGHTS References of the concept of basic human rights can be found in recorded history and ancient scriptures. In India the concept of human rights can be traced down to the Vedic times. There are many references in Vedas which throw light on the existence of human rights . The Rig Veda refers to three civil rights, the liberty of body (Tana), dwelling house (Skridhi) and life (Jibhasi). The importance of the freedom of the individual in a state and rules of war, one form of human rights has been described in Mahabharata. Artha Shastra elaborates on civil and legal rights first formulated by Manu which also include economic rights. In India, the modern version of human rights jurisprudence has taken birth at the time of British rule. The origin of this ideal lies in the struggle for freedom against the British rulers. Modern historians credit the origin of the concept to Magna Carta 1521 AD. On close examination it would be seen that Magna Carta was a petition urging the King to concede certain rights to particular section of the people. Its contents had neither the universality nor   direct relevance to common mans basic freedom. The term â€Å"Human Rights† was introduced in the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776. The French Resolution in 1789 ushered in the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen.   Much later in 1929, the Institute of International Law, New York, USA, prepared a Declaration of Human Rights and Duties.   In 1945, the Inter American Conference passed a resolution seeking the establishment of an international forum for the furtherance of human rights of mankind. The World War II drew the required attention towards human rights.   The atrocities committed on ethnic grounds by the Axis Powers shocked the conscience of the international community.   The United Nations finally proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. Modern human rights can be categorised into three generations of rights. The first generation rights are concerned with the civil and political rights of the individual or the liberty oriented rights. The second-generation rights are those which are security oriented and provide social, economic and cultural securities. Third generation of human rights include the environmental and developmental rights. They are relatively of recent origin. They have evolved in response to various new concerns over which international consensus has emerged in recent years. The concept of human rights is based on equal and inalienable rights of all human beings freedom, justice and peace in the world.   These are sometimes also called fundamental or basic rights.   These are often set out in the constitution of the nation.   All member countries of the United Nations have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms. The concept of human rights would include the following:- Equality and justice for all, elimination of various distinctions between one human being and another anywhere and on any ground whatsoever. No one to be held without any charge or trial. Right to be produced before a magistrate with 24 hours of arrest. Rights to fair and prompt trial. Freedom from torture or ill treatment by any agency Protection from sexual violations. Rights to life and to be treated humanely, no killings, particularly of innocent person and not even inhuman behaviour. Freedom from arbitrary and unlawful coercion. Rights against any or all other excesses. CHAPTER III UNIVERSAL   DECLARATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS AND PROVISION OF   HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIAN CONSTITUTION The United States defined human rights in a policy document in 1978, which says, â€Å"Freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, torture, unfair trial, cruel and unusual punishment and invasion of privacy, rights to food, shelter, health care, education, freedom of thought, speech, assembly, religion, press, movement and participation in Government†. The United Nations Organisation in keeping with its charter to promote respect for fundamental freedom and human rights for all without any distinction, came out with an International Bill of Human Rights consisting of the following:- Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966. The International Covenant of Economic Social and Cultural Rights, 1966. The Optional Protocol (1966) providing for the right of the individual to petition international agencies. The principle on which the above are based are:- All human beings, without distinction have been brought within the scope of human rights instruments. Equality of application without distinction of race, sex, language or religion. Emphasis on international cooperation for implementation. Provision of Human Rights in Indian Constitution. India is a signatory to the various conventions proclaimed by the United Nations Organisation. The Constitution of India guarantees to every citizen the basic human rights and fundamental freedom and gives due prominence in the form of fundamental rights enumerated in part III of the constitution   and are also embodied as Directive Principles of State Policy   .   The important aspects are:- Right to equality. )Right to freedom. Right against exploitation. )Right to freedom of religion. Cultural and educational rights. Right to constitutional remedies. CHAPTER IV LEGAL ASPECTS OF LOW INTENSITY CONFLICT OPERATIONS AND   ARMED FORCES SPECIAL POWERS ACT General.   The armed forces have been engaged in counter insurgency operations especially in North Eastern states of India since 1958 and in Jammu Kashmir since early nineties.   It is the constitutional responsibility of the army to ensure the integrity of the country both from external aggression as well as internal disturbances when the internal situation becomes serious and gets beyond the capabilities of the civil administration. Legal Provisions. Several legal provisions exist to provide legal powers and protection to the armed forces to execute internal security duties and aid to civil authorities[x]. These provisions are enumerated below:- Armed Forces (Special Powers) Ordinance, 1947. Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958. Provisions of Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC), 1973, (Section 45) Constitution of India, Article 246 vis a vis the Commission of Inquiry Act, 1952. The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act 1967. Indian Arms Act 1959. Indian Penal Code (IPC). The Nagaland Security Regulation, 1962. Armed Forces Special Powers Act Background. To meet the situation arising in certain parts of India on account of the partition of the country in 1947, the Government of India issued four ordinances viz., Bengal Disturbed Areas (Special Powers of Armed Forces) Ordinance, 1947 (Act 11 of 1947), Assam Disturbed Areas (Special Powers of Armed Forces) Ordinance, 1947 (Act 14 of 1947), East Punjab and Delhi Disturbed Areas (Special Powers of Armed Forces) Ordinance, 1947 (Act 17 of 1947) and United Provinces Disturbed Areas (Special Powers of Armed Forces) Ordinance, 1947 (Act 22 of 1947). These ordinances were replaced by the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1948 being Act 3 of 1948. It was repealed by Act 36 of 1957.    The present act was enacted by the Parliament in 1958 and it was known initially as Armed Forces (Assam and Manipur) Special Powers Act, 1958. The act was preceded by an ordinance called Armed Forces (Assam and Manipur) Special Powers Ordinance, 1958 promulgated by the President of India on 22 May 1958. The act applied to the entire state of Assam and the union territory of Manipur. After the new states of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland came into being, the act was appropriately adapted to apply to these states in 1972. As originally enacted, the power to declare an area to be a disturbed area was conferred only upon the state governments. By Act 7 of 1972, however, such a power was conferred concurrently upon the Central Government. This act was enacted in the state of Punjab in 1980s and in Jammu Kashmir in 1990.    The Preamble to the act, as amended, reads as Act to enable special powers to be conferred upon members of the armed forces in disturbed areas in the states of xxxxx (as applicable)†. The Act and its Provisions.  Ã‚   The provisions of the act are similar to those of the first passed in 1958.   The basic features of the act are as follows:- Section 1. This section states the name of the act and the areas to which it extends. Section 2. This section sets out the definition of the act. Sub section (a).   the armed forces were defined as Military forces and air forces operating as land forces, and includes any other armed forces of the union so operating.   Sub section (b).   It defines a disturbed area as â€Å"An area which is for the time being declared by notification under section 3 to be a disturbed area†. Sub section (c). It states that all other words and expressions used but not defined in the act will have the meanings assigned to them in the Army Act of 1950 or Air Force Act 1950. Section 3. It grants the power to declare an area disturbed to the Central Government and the governors of the state.  Ã‚   Governor of that state or the administrator of that union territory or the Central Government, as the case may be, may, by notification in the official gazette, declare the whole or such part of such state or union territory to be a disturbed area. Section 4.   It enumerates the special powers of the armed forces, which are deployed in a state or a part of the state to act in aid of civil power. The section reads that any commissioned officer, warrant officer, non-commissioned officer or any other person of equivalent rank in the armed forces may, in a disturbed area, Sub section (a). If he is of opinion that it is necessary so to do for the maintenance of public order, after giving such due warning as he may consider necessary fire upon or otherwise use force, even to the causing of death, against any person who is acting in contravention of any law or order for the time being in force in the disturbed area prohibiting the assembly of five or more persons or the carrying of weapons or of things capable of being used as weapons or of firearms, ammunition or explosive substances. Sub section (b). If he is of opinion that it is necessary so to do, destroy any arms dump, prepared or fortified position or shelter from which armed attacks are made or are likely to be made or are attempted to be made, or any structure used as training camp for armed volunteers or utilised as a hideout by armed gangs or absconders wanted for any offence. Sub section (c). Arrest, without warrant, any person who has committed a cognizable offence or against whom a reasonable suspicion exists that he has committed or is about to commit a cognizable offence and may use such force as may be necessary to effect the arrest. Sub section (d). Enter and search without warrant any premises to make any such arrest as aforesaid or to recover any person believed to be wrongfully restrained or confined or any property reasonably suspected to be stolen property or any arms, ammunition or explosive substances believed to be unlawfully kept in such premises, and may for that purpose use such force as may be necessary.    Section 5.  Ã‚   This section states that that any person arrested and taken into custody under this act shall be handed over to the officer-in-charge of the nearest police station with least possible delay, together with a report of the circumstances occasioning the arrest. Section 6.   This section confers a protection upon the persons acting under the act. No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding can be instituted against such person in respect of anything done or purported to be done in exercise of the powers conferred by this act, except with the previous sanction of the Central Government. g.Section 7.Repeal and saving. 7.Dos and Donts for Armed Forces Special Power Act.  Ã‚   Army Headquarters has issued certain Dos and Donts to be followed by the members of the armed forces while operating under Armed Forces Special Powers Act. As per direction of the Supreme Court,   the forces operating under this act shall observe and abide by the following directives in the course of operations under the act:- Dos 8.Actions before Operations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Act only in areas declared â€Å"Disturbed area† under section 3 of the act.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Power to open to fire using force or arrest is to be exercised under this act only by an officer /junior commissioned officer/ and non commissioned officer Before lunching any raid/search, definite information about the activist to be obtained from the local civil authorities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As far as possible co-opt representative of local civil administration during the raid. 9.Actions during Operations.   Ã‚  Ã‚   In case of necessity of opening fire and using any force against the suspect or any person acting in contravention to law and order, ascertain first that it is essential for maintenance of public order. Open fire only after due warning.   Ã‚   Arrest only those who have committed cognisable offence or who are about to commit cognisable offence or against whom a reasonable ground exists to prove that they have committed or are about to commit cognisable offence. Ensure that troops under command do not harass innocent people, destroy property of the public or unnecessarily enter into the house/dwelling of people not connected with any unlawful activities. Ensure that women are not searched/arrested without the presence of female police.   Women should be search by female police only. 10.Actions after Operations. After arrest prepare a list of the persons so arrested. Handover the arrested persons to the nearest police station with least possible delay. While handing over to the police a report should accompany with detailed circumstances occasioning the arrest. Every delay in handing over the suspects to the police must be justified and should be reasonable depending upon the place, time of arrest and the terrain in which such person has been arrested. Least possible delay may be 2-3 hours extendable to 24 hours or so depending upon a particular case. After raid/search operations make out a list of all arms, ammunition or other incriminating material/ documents taken into possession. All such arms, ammunition, store etc should be handed over to the police station along with the seizure memorandum. Obtain receipt of persons and arms/ ammunition, stores etc so handed over to the police. Make record of the area where operation is launched, having the date, time and the persons participating in such raids. Make a record of the commander and other officer/ junior commissioned officer/ and non commissioned officer forming part of such force. Ensure medical relief to any person injured during the encounter. If any person dies in the encounter his dead body be handed over immediately to the police along with the details leading to such death. 11.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dealing with Civil Court.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Direction of the high court/Supreme Court to be promptly attended to.   Ã‚   Whenever summoned by the court, decorum of the court must be maintained and proper respect paid. Answer questions of the court politely and with dignity. Maintain detailed record of the entire operation correctly and explicitly. Donts Do not keep a person under custody for any period longer than the bare necessity for handing over to the nearest police station. Do not use any force after having arrested a person except when he is trying to escape.    Do not use third degree method to extract information or to extract confession or other involvement in unlawful activities. After arrest of a person by the member of the armed forces, the member of the armed forces shall not interrogate him. Do not release the person directly after apprehending on your own. If any person is to be released, he must be released through civil authorities.    Do not tamper with official records. The armed forces shall not take back a person after he is handed over to the civil police. CHAPTER V ARMED FORCES SPECIAL POWERS ACT AND HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATION Gen Many human rights organisations including United Nations Human Rights Organisation are demanding repeal of Armed Forces Special Powers Act very strongly. They allege this act to be draconian and responsible for major portion of the human rights violations. As per these organisations unprecedented powers have been given to the armed forces under this act, which contravene many of the constitutional provisions and international law standards. They blame that the act is illegal in many respects. Argument Against   Legality of Armed Forces Special Powers Act Various human rights organisations have pointed out many shortcomings of the Armed Forces Special Powers Act and blame it to be illegal. Some of the important aspects are enumerated in succeeding paragraphs. Indian Laws. Several cases challenging the constitutionality of Armed Forces Special Powers Act are pending before the Supreme Court. The following provisions of the Indian laws are alleged to be contravened by this act:- Violation of Right to Life.    Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to life to all citizens of the country. This right is violated by section 4 of this act. Violation of Right of Equality.Article 14 of the Indian Constitution guarantees equality before law. People residing in disturbed areas are denied this right due to provision of section 6 of the act which prevents citizen from filing a suit against the member of armed forces without the sanction of the Central Government. Violation of Protection Against Arrest and Detention. Under section 22 of the Constitution, any person arrested should be informed of the causes for the arrest and also he/she should be produced before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest. This act violates both these provisions as the armed forces detain people for days and months at times. Preventive Detention Law. If the detention of arrested persons beyond 24 hours is defended on grounds of Preventive Detention Law, it still violates the provision of the law. As per provision of this law any person arrested without a warrant cannot be held for more than three months. Any detention longer than three months has to be reviewed by an advisory board. No such provision has been incorporated in Armed Forces Special Powers Act. The Indian Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC). The Criminal Procedure Code describes the procedures that the police is to follow for arrests, searches and seizures. Armed forces are not trained on these procedures and hence do not follow them. Criminal Procedure Code also advocates use of minimum force to disperse any assembly. No such provisions exist in Armed Forces Special Powers Act. An executive magistrate or a police officer not below the rank of a sub inspector is is authorised to disperse any unlawful assembly. In Armed Forces Special Powers Act every member of the armed forces less a sepoy has been authorised to do the same job. Criminal Procedure Code does not state use of force to disperse an assembly to the extent of causing death unless they are accused of an offence punishable by death. The same provision does not apply to Armed Forces Special Powers Act. Lack of Remedy to the Victim. Section 6 of Armed Forces Special Powers Act violates the provision of section 32(1) of the constitution that state the right to move to the Supreme Court in case any violation of his basic rights guaranteed by the constitution. State of Emergency. Armed Forces Special Powers Act grants the state of emergency powers to the armed forces without declaring a state of emergency as prescribed in the constitution. International Laws. Human rights organisations like United Nations Human Rights Commission claim that Armed Forces Special Powers Act violates the various provisions of United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights and many other International Laws. They include violation of the rights of free and equal dignity, non discrimination, life, security, no torture, equality before law, no arbitrary arrests etc. Some of the important aspects of International Laws are given in the succeeding paragraphs:- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). As per provisions of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights some of the rights of the citizens e.g. right to life, prohibition of torture etc remain non derogable   even in case of emergencies. Armed Forces Special Powers Act violates both derogable and non derogable rights. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights also guarantees that any person who is arrested has the right to know the reason for his arrest. This provision is also violated by the Armed Forces Special Powers Act as no armed forces authorities are obliged to inform the person the reasons for his/her arrest. International Customary Law. The Armed Forces Special Powers Act violates the United Nations Code of Conduct for Law Enforcing Officials in terms of use of force including use of fire arms in addition to the various other provisions which are repetitive of similar provisions in other international laws. Legal Analysis of Armed Forces Special Power Act   In depth analysis of Armed Forces Special Powers Act brings out that the arguments of various human rights organisations on the act being illegal are biased and are misinterpreted. Analysis of the act brings out the following facts:-   Legality of the Act.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Armed Forces Special Powers Act was enacted by the Parliament in 1958 as per the procedures and powers invested on it by the Indian Constitution. Hence this act is absolutely legal. The legality of this act has also been upheld by the Supreme Court in its verdict in the case of Naga Peoples Movement of Human Rights versus Union of India, challenging the legality of the act on 27 November 1997. Misunderstanding of Armed Forces Special Powers Act. A large portion of population does not have a clear understanding of the act. All actions of human rights violation including those by police organisations, assam rifles and other paramilitary forces are also thought to have occurred due to this act. Interpretation of Special Power.The term â€Å"Special Power† in the name of this act is often misunderstood and misinterpreted. There is no special power vested to the armed forces through this act. All provisions of section 4 of this act are vested to the police authorities even in peace time. Police can also arrest a person without a warrant when the person is accused of committing a cognisable offence. History has numerous accounts of k

Hobbes Against Limited Government

Explain and discuss Hobbes' belief that neither limited government (where the sovereign is bound by laws) nor divided government (a system of checks and balances) is a practical possibility. Word Count: 2, 764 words In Leviathan, Hobbes imagines rational self-interested parties in a state of nature choosing among three alternatives: remaining in this state of nature; grouping themselves together under a government with limited, or divided, power and authority; or forming themselves into a civil society governed by a sovereign with unlimited power and authority. He contends, however, that the second alternative is basically illusory. Because of the constant danger of factionalism, civil war, and social disintegration in a group governed by a â€Å"mixarchy† with limited or divided power, such a form of social organization does not provide its members with sufficient security to really remove them from the state of nature. The choice of the parties, according to Hobbes, is therefore reduced to one between absolute sovereignty and the state of nature, and as the state of nature is â€Å"a state of war of all against all† Hobbes concludes that the parties would choose absolute government as the lesser evil. Absolute monarchy is the form of absolute government Hobbes prefers – as this furthers his political agenda of providing a means to resolve the civil conflict devastating his country – but nothing in his theory of sovereignty depends on the preference. In fact his concept of absolute sovereignty can be more convincing when not linked to a monarch, thus in this essay I will Hobbes’s former argument in isolation. Why is absolute sovereignty necessary? Hobbes's primary argument for the doctrine of absolute sovereignty is essentially an argument against right reason. Hobbes claims that any appeal to right reason or â€Å"the truth† comprises a completely inadequate basis for the resolution of disputes, because if disputes are about what the truth actually is, then appealing to these concepts – which cannot be identified without ambiguity or uncertainty – is essentially inconclusive and therefore self-defeating. Concern for the truth or right reason will not resolve isputes successfully or peacefully when people have entrenched and irreconcilable positions, because that is precisely the route to conflict and violence — â€Å"the state of war, of every man against every man. † Hobbes establishes that if each individual were allowed the liberty to follow his own conscience without constraint, then as such consciences vary, peace and harmony in the state would be short lived due to a persistent tendenc y to disagreement and civil disobedience. This diversity of consciences and the unrestrained exercise of individual judgment would render any common action highly uncertain or virtually impossible. Although men, according to Hobbes, are not political by nature, their association depends on an agreement to observe justice among men who disagree about who ought to receive what, thus they need common standards of right and wrong to regulate their affairs. Where it is impossible to obtain a unanimity of wills and agreement a common policy cannot be determined so, Hobbes informs us, an artificial will or person must be created and accepted. This â€Å"artificial right reason† introduces a public level of judgment that takes precedence over private judgments, so the problems of the latter are avoided. A sovereign may produce an incorrect answer which does not correlate with the truth, but the judgment stands â€Å"not because it is his private Sentence; but because he giveth it by Authority of the Sovereign †¦ which is Law. † Even if one believes that the sovereign’s decision is fundamentally wrong, civil disobedience is prohibited. That person has an obligation to obey, or face the consequences of the punishment power exercised by the sovereign. Thus, Hobbes’s sole and unique remedy for the â€Å"state of war against all† supports the concept of absolute sovereignty as a necessary and sufficient condition for the formation of a genuine political union. A possible argument against this contention that states without an absolute government will inevitably deteriorate into a state of war is that there have been numerous small, so-called â€Å"acephalous† societies that exist for long periods without any stable leadership, law or politics in their daily lives. On the small scale at least these societies can get by with the laws f nature alone, yet Hobbes seems to suggest that their existence is impossible to explain. Scholars have suggested that Hobbes’s state of nature is peopled with the men of the seventeenth century, and his theory is designed around the problem of sustaining and policing a large and prosperous society, so this may not be a major defect, as acephalous societies tend to be relative ly rare, small and isolated. Hampton contends that Hobbes's argument fails to prove that people, as he describes them, would institute his definition an absolute sovereign. Hobbes proposes that the creation of an absolute sovereign is necessary to secure peace in the commonwealth, but the very existence of the sovereign is ultimately determined by the people as subjects. Thus, Hampton argues that the subjects cannot create a sovereign who meets the definition given by Hobbes — a ruler who decides all questions in the commonwealth and whose reign is absolute and permanent. Hence, it does not follow that peace and harmony in civil society can be secured and guaranteed by the adoption of Hobbes's scheme. Hampton’s argument is, I believe, a sound one and while it questions the likelihood of establishing an absolute sovereign, its relevance is limited here as the society Hobbes is writing for already have a monarch, which he endeavours to persuade them to obey. Why does Hobbes believe limited government is not possible? Hobbes sets out to demonstrate that civil society can only be truly unified when the state incorporates a single validating authority with clearly defined decision-making procedures, which can arrive at definite decisions and initiate common action — despite a divergence of consciences. Some scholars suggest that Hobbes requires a single human decision-maker and fails to recognise that a group of decision makers would have the same effect, such as a parliament with a set of clearly entrenched rules or laws. However, on a wider reading of his works, it seems to me that Hobbes believed in any form of absolute government – an absolute democracy, aristocracy, or closed oligarchy would also be feasible, so long as the power of the group is absolute. Hobbes’s assumption is that human disagreement is all pervasive; that the subjects of a commonwealth are incapable of reaching a unified interpretation of a constitution and, therefore, an adjudicator (or adjudicative body) will be needed to interpret the constitution for them. Such a body constrained by law would simply fail because laws, and the words which constitute them, can always be subjected to various interpretations. Therefore, some member of the political system must have the authority to determine what the law is with a clear, unambiguous and indisputable answer. Hobbes contends that if there is a power that is limited within a state, then it must be limited by a greater power. So the search for the greatest power in the commonwealth – the sovereign power – will be realised when we come to an ultimate power, that effectively limits all others, but which is unlimited in its own right. The authority that determines the meaning of the laws and can force obedience to those laws by all is effectively the absolute sovereign because the power to reach a final binding decision is located in it, even if that body regularly delegates power to another. So, for example, if the King is dependent on an assembly, then it is the latter body which is ultimately sovereign. In essence, Hobbes claims that a government comes into existence only with the appointment of a ruler with absolute power — a power that effectively transcends all others, and over which there is no appeal. Any authority with that standing and intended to perform that task according to Hobbes must be legally absolute, that is, unchallengeable in the name of any other legal authority. If the authority cannot enforce obedience to the laws by all, then they have no power, and the Government is not constrained by law. Why does Hobbes contend divided government is not a practical possibility? Hobbes believes a government limited by law is also necessarily divided, and this appears sound. Further, he contends that such a divided government, or a system of checks and balances where power is spread between various branches of government, is fundamentally unstable and will inevitably degenerate into civil war. A government with sovereignty divided among different branches was rejected by Hobbes in the following terms: â€Å"For what is to divide the Power of a Commonwealth but to dissolve it; for Powers divided mutually destroy each other. Once again Hobbes maintains that what destroys this kind of constitutional arrangement is the impossibility of agreement as to the interpretation and enforcement of moral rules or principles. The heads of all divided governments necessarily live in a state of nature with respect to one another. Each branch acts for its own self-interest, and with no common power ove r them, will transcend into a state of war with respect to one another. Each branch is assumed to behave just as humans would: in a state of nature, and exclusively motivated by their egocentric and selfish tendencies, civil war will inevitably follow. Hobbes believed a state to be an artificially organized whole run by a person’s mind, so it can be expected to behave as a body does (given that a body too is an organized whole run by a human mind). Hobbes’s vision is of a unitary state with one government run by a mind, or a group of minds, which will behave like a small organization run by a human mind. Problems with these arguments: History is against Hobbes, as in reality divided governments can – and do – work well, certainly they are no more unstable than some absolute governments. The United States of America is a paradigm example, despite the American Civil War of 1861-1865, few would argue that their constitution successfully divides power between the separate branches – parliament, legislature, and judiciary – who each act as a check and balance on the other branches to prevent the abuse of absolute power. It is also conceptually possible to have a limited government which is not seriously divided. New Zealand is close to this model – while the Governor-General has a power to veto laws, by convention this is never exercised. Where such limited governments rule, there seems to be no increased concern of the sovereign abrogating the laws. Both limited government which is not divided, and divided government, can work in a stable way as checks and balances on power effectively impose a minimum standard of competence and thought, which makes for more rationality (and less room for errors) by those in power. History therefore proves there must be an error in Hobbes’s theory. But this does not mean his entire argument is wrong, his theory may be adapted to cope with this development: it is not simply true that a state of nature between human-like actors is necessarily a state of war – for the latter to result the former also requires other factors, including scarcity (which does not generally exist for politicians, hence the success of divided governments). Hobbes’s argument presupposes scarcity between individuals, and it is also true that states may be in situations of relative scarcity with one another – so they too may drift into a state of international war. Another explanation for this phenomenon is that the collective action of members of governmental branches is not the same as individual action. It is too simplistic to argue that such branches behave just like giant robots or individual people would, as they are divided by the varying individual consciences of their members. For a group to behave like an individual its members must subsume their own desires and motivations to peruse those of the group, but there is no proof that primarily selfish people, as Hobbes defines them, would do this. In reality, branch members may be aligned with members of other branches – particularly as they are usually elected by each other – inhibiting a war between the branches of government. This analogy may also extend to the relationship between nations, which in the opinion of this author, are currently generally not in a state of war. The European Union has been remarkably successful at fostering commercial and psychological links between state members – so these hitherto competing nations no longer regularly engage with one another in warfare. Perhaps Hobbes would reply that members of the European Economic Community now exist as a single state, rather than individually. This is doubtful however, as the European Union does not have a collective military force, which Hobbes considered a necessary common power for a government. Thus, at least in Europe, there exist today states which are in a state of nature with respect to one another in Hobbesian sense, yet they are in a state of real peace. Problems with Hobbes’s remedy: Some academics have suggested that perhaps Hobbes’s remedy – absolute government – is worse than the disease he attempts to avoid – the state of war. Under an absolute government there cannot be respect for individual rights in the sense of a law protecting such rights that the sovereign cannot override. But Hobbes argues that if people accept the necessity of absolute government then there is no incentive for that government to systematically violate the rights of human subjects, as if people do not rebel then the government will have no reason to think their power is under threat. Vitally, Hobbes’s theory assumes the rationality of the sovereign, but there are intuitive reasons for thinking that people in powerful positions are not psychologically usual, or rational. Acton’s famous aphorism â€Å"Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men,† reflects the historical trend of powerful, aggressive and seemingly irrational leaders such as Stalin and Hitler. In Leviathan, Hobbes himself notes that people may object to exposing themselves to â€Å"the lusts, and irregular passions of him, or them that have so unlimited a power in their hands. His later argument that a sovereign who is already on a pedestal of glory will not desire even more seems dubious, and also seems to directly contradict his argument of a â€Å"general inclination of all mankind a perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death. † Furthermore, absolute governments typically have am bitious foreign policy, Hobbes confessed this: â€Å"Kings, whose power is greatest, turn their endeavours to the assuring it at home by laws, or abroad by wars: and when that is done, there succeedeth a new desire; in some, of fame from new conquest. Maintaining a large army to succeed in battle will require heavy taxation and conscription, as Hobbes knew The Royal Government of France had implemented. Hobbes basic proposition is that obeying the government is the only way a peaceful life can be achieved. However, life might still be â€Å"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short† for people who obey their governments and are conscripted into armies with high casualty rates. The prospect of international war did not seem to concern Hobbes greatly – this optimism probably stems from his personal experiences of the English and French international conflicts, which were far less destructive than the interpersonal conflict observed in civil wars. Hobbes would have known of the incredibly destructive Thirty Years’ War however, and as modern technology has since vastly increased the possibility of international harm, in the opinion of this author, a constant state of international war is a major concern and if it inevitably stems from organised polity, then this is not unquestionably better than a state of nature. Conclusion The alternatives available when Hobbes wrote, given England’s political history, did seem to be only absolute monarchy or anarchy and dissolution. We now know that a middle possibility does exist, a sovereign body may be limited by something that is not a superior body: an elected body of men may enjoy unlimited legislative powers, yet face the possibility of dismissal at the next election. Hobbes emphasised that a government draws its authority from below; its subsequent performance can also be subject to periodic review from below. Electorates† are neither superior decision-making bodies, nor are they organised bodies at all – only all electors taken collectively. Yet their existence may effectively restrain sovereign legislature’s absolute constitutional freedom, thereby avoiding the Hobbesian dilemma that a decision-making authority can be checked only by a rival or by a more powerful body. In his autobiography, Hobbes states that the goal of publishing Thucydides was to â€Å"point out how inadequate democracy is, and how much wiser one man is than a multitude. † Hobbes clearly believed that democracy posed many threats to political stability. But it is probably an exaggeration to think of Hobbes as anti-democratic in a modern sense, in his day democracies – such as ancient Athens – failed to last, and seemed practical only for small states as they required active and continuous participation by the people in their own government. Hobbes should not be assumed to be opposed to the large modern democracies we have today, which he never could have predicted or imagined. References: Finn, S. (2006). Thomas Hobbes and the Politics of Natural Philosophy. Cornwall: MGP Books. Goldsmith, M. (1966). Hobbes’s Science of Politics. London: Columbia University Press. Hampton, J. (1986) Hobbes and the Social Contract Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hobbes, T. Leviathan. (1994). Retrieved on 02 April 2009, from The University of Adelaide Library Database http://ebooks. adelaide. edu. au Hopkins, S. (2009). Hobbes and Absolute Sovereignty. Retrieved on 01 April 2009, from Pathways to Philosophy website http://www. philosophypathways. com Kafka, G. (1983). Hobbes’s War of All Against All. Ethics (93)2, 291-310. Pigden, C. (18/03/2009). Personal Communication. Lecture: Philosophy 227/327. Rogow, A. , & Lasswell, H. (1963). Power Corruption and Rectitude. Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. Shelton, G. (1992). Morality and Sovereignty in the Philosophy of Hobbes. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Sorrell, T. (1986). Hobbes. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Sorrell, T. (Ed. ). (1996). The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Springborg, P (Ed. ). (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes’s Leviathan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Watkins, J. (1989). Hobbes System of Ideas (2nd ed. ). England: Gower Publishing.